The Ancient Roman Way of Life Essay - 1205 Words

The Roman way of life is different and similar to modern day. Though one may not know much over the Roman’s the culture is fascinating and still remembered in history. The clothes, food, customs, and leisure are major in Roman lifestyle. During the ancient Roman time period, clothing was crucial in citizens’ status of either emperor, wealthy, middle class, poor, or slave. The emperor would have worn the toga trabea, which was, â€Å"formal differences in togas which denoted social rank† (Roman Dress). The emperor himself would wear a toga with a purple stripe to show his status. As emperor, he would also wear the latus clavus, tunica palmata, and the toga palmata. For wealthy citizens, â€Å"It was simply deemed improper for such a Roman citizen of†¦show more content†¦In addition, Romans had amazing food and dining utensils that they used for their dinner parties and elaborate meals. During Ancient Rome, â€Å"Romans waited until the main meal of the day, the cena, (Tingay and Marks 38) to truly eat. The cena came in three courses, the appetizers, the main course, and the secundae mensae. When the food was served, it came with plenty of wine. This was because Romans had two hundred varieties or more from all over the empire. In the cena, â€Å"Food was served on dishes. Most were made of glass or pottery, but if the family was very rich there would also be ornate platters of gold and silver (Tingay and Marks 39). The Romans had spoons and knives but they preferred eating with their hands and fingers. As the slaves brought the food out on various dishes they would also pour the wine from the amphorae into a jug for easy pouring during meals. At many of the meals the host would normally have three couches, the summus, medius, and imus. (Top, middle, bottom). â€Å"The diners were seated according to their social status† (Tingay and Marks 39). 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Feminist Waves What Does the Metaphor Mean

Beginning with a 1968 article titled Second Feminist Wave by Martha Weinman Lear in the New York Times Magazine, the metaphor of waves was used to describe feminism at different points in history. The first wave of feminism is usually assumed to have begun in 1848 with the Seneca Falls Convention and to have ended in 1920, with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment giving American women the vote.   While early in the movement, feminists took on such issues as education, religion, marriage law, admission to professions and financial and property rights, by 1920 the major focus of the first wave was on voting.   When that battle was won, womens rights activism seemed to disappear. Women’s Suffrage: What You Need to Know The second wave of feminism is usually assumed to begin in the 1960s and run through the ERA deadline of March, 1979, or the extended deadline in 1982. Second Wave Feminism: 1960s and 1970s But the truth is that there were feminists -- those who advocated womens advancement towards equality -- before 1848, and there was activism between 1920 and the 1960s on behalf of womens rights.   The periods from 1848 to 1920 and during the 1960s and 1970s saw more focus in such activism, and there were backlashes from 1920 – 1960 and starting in the 1970s, which lend some credence to the image of waves cresting and then the water falling back. Like many metaphors, the â€Å"waves† metaphor both reveals and hides some truths about the women’s rights movements.

Analysing Carbon Emissions From Pakistan Environmental Sciences Essay Free Essays

string(89) " have shown that increased GHG degrees in ambiance are believed to do planetary heating\." The anthropogenetic CO2 emanations and planetary heating has alarmed worldly to happen new and better ways to run into the energy demand while cut downing the GHGs. Pakistan is besides badly affected by energy crisis and environmental jobs. Pakistan brick kilns are one of the major fluke gas emanation resources. We will write a custom essay sample on Analysing Carbon Emissions From Pakistan Environmental Sciences Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now The intent of this research is to develop a simulation theoretical account to relieve CO2 emanations and utilize it for the production of fertiliser that helps the agribusiness needs and economic system. The widely used MEA dissolver to capture flue gases is replaced by Aqueous Ammonia because the subsequently non merely absorbs all three major acid gases ( CO2, SO2 and NO2 ) to greater extent but besides produces a compound fertiliser from these acid gases which has advantage over other fertilisers and does non pollute the land H2O. It has been found that soaking up efficiency is increased with addition of NH3/CO2 molar ratio. This methodological analysis has been first clip introduced in Pakistan to bring forth a fertiliser from the flue gases of brick kilns. This technique can significantly cut down air pollution and a measure towards sustainability. The phenomenon of planetary heating has changed its form and converted itself to planetary warning. It is due to non merely the monolithic emanation of GHGs in the ambiance but besides deficiency of appropriate direction system to cut down the monolithic sum of the GHG. GHG chiefly consists of CO2, H2O bluess, methane and last but non least choloroflorocarbon. Harmonizing to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , about three-quarterss of the addition in atmospheric CO2 is attributable to firing fossel fuels. [ IPCC, Climate Change 2001: impacts, version and exposure. Contribution of working group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press ; 2001. ] If the C in all the estimated dodo fuel militias were emitted to the ambiance, the C concentration would lift to more than 5 times pre-industrial degree. [ O’Neill BC, Oppenheimer M. Climate Change: Dangerous Climate impacts and the Kyot o protocol, Science 2002 ; 296 ( 5575 ) :1971-2. ] With mention to the IPCC anticipation, the ambiance would incorporate up to 570 ppm of CO2 by the terminal of 2100, doing a rise of mean planetary temperature of around 1.9o ­C and an addition in average sea degree of 3.8 m [ Stewart C, Hessami M.A survey of methods of C dioxide gaining control and sequestration- the sustainability of a photosynthetic bioreactor attack, Energy Convers Manage 2005 ; 46 ; 403-20 ] . Another IPCC studies on CO2 gaining control and storage gives planetary CO2 emanation in 2000 at 23.5GT with about 60 % of this attributed to 7887 beginnings above 100,000 tonne/year including 4942 electrical power Stationss which emitted 10.5GT/year CO2. the staying 40 % emanations were chiefly from transit systems. [ IEA particular study on C dioxide gaining control and storage, IPCC web site: www.ipcc.ch ; 2005 ] . Other than power workss and cars brick kilns are besides lending in environmental pollution. Coal and wood are normally employed in the fabrication of bricks in Pakistan. The burning of coal and wood release C dioxide, methane, C atom, azotic oxide and a assortment of manufactured chemicals that do non happen in nature like Chlorofluorocarbons, ozone, C monoxide, non-methane hydrocarbons, ( NMHCs ) and nitrogen oxides [ 2 ] . Harmonizing to our appraisal there are more than 1000 brick kilns working in the locality of Lahore. The one-year production of bricks is about 46 million per twelvemonth from more than 6000 brick kilns in Pakistan. The emanations from Brick Kiln industry in Pakistan is at scaring degree. It has been estimated that about 533019 dozenss of untreated nursery gases are emitted from these kilns on one-year footing which contribute in assorted environmental jobs can be observed in table 1. [ 2 ] . The tallness of chimney is besides non high plenty because of which the somberness leans downwards to the land, finally fouling the country. Table 1: CO2 Emissions of states of Pakistan State Probationary Division Green Houses Gases Emission ( tons/year ) Green Houses Gases Emission % age Punjab Entire 479467 89.96 Sindh Entire 34332 6.44 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Entire 14745 2.76 Balochistan Entire 4475 0.84 Grand Total 533019 100 Figure 1: Pakistan CO2 emanation ( metric dozenss per capita ) Figure 2: Word CO2 emanation ( metric dozenss per capita ) Emissions from Brick kiln: The emanations from Brick Kiln industry in Pakistan is at scaring degree. The values of GHGs release calculated from the up matching to 6000 brick units established in the state are 139600, 19600, 495200, 2100, 360, 17 and 540 T severally for entire C ( C ) , C dioxide ( CO ) , C dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane CH4, azotic oxide ( NO ) , nitrogen dioxide ( N2O ) and NOx. It is apparent that GHGs emanations are dominated by C dioxide ( CO2 ) followed by CO and other non- CO2 gases. Projected parts of GHGs from the Punjab state to the state ‘s entire emanations are highest which can be observed in the Table 1. [ 2 ] . Environmental Issue: Environmental issues due to emanations of pollutants from burning of fossil fuels have turned into planetary jobs, every bit good as air toxics and nursery gases ( GHGs ) . The usage of fossil fuels for energy contributes to a figure of environmental jobs globally. Harmonizing to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) [ 1 ] , about three-quarterss of the addition in atmospheric CO2 is attributable to firing fossil fuels. Table 2 shows the harmful pollutants released into the ambiance from combustion of fossil fuels. If the C in all of the estimated dodo fuel militias were emitted to the ambiance, the C concentration would lift to more than 5 times pre-industrial degrees [ 2 ] . Table 2: Fossil fuel emanation degrees ( pounds/billion BTU of energy input ) Pollutant Natural Gas Oil Coal Carbon dioxide 117000 164000 208000 Carbon monoxide 40 33 208 Nitrogen oxide 92 448 457 Sulphur oxide 1 1122 2591 Particulates 7 84 2744 Mercury 0.00 0.007 0.016 Entire 117140 165687.007 214000.016 Beginning: EIA Surveies have shown that increased GHG degrees in ambiance are believed to do planetary heating. You read "Analysing Carbon Emissions From Pakistan Environmental Sciences Essay" in category "Essay examples" Among these GHGs, CO2 makes up a high proportion in regard of its sum nowadays in the ambiance, lending 60 per centum of planetary heating effects [ 3 ] . World Consumption of Fertilizer World fertiliser ingestion increased exponentially in the period 1950- 1990. This growing was spurred by the rise in nutrient demand by increasing universe population. Achieving higher production given the same sum of land can be done through three ways. Turning more land into cultivable land through better irrigation Using High Yielding Seeds ( HYS ) Using fertilisers to better dirt content Improvement in dirt content is the most convenient and often followed method. Furthermore, it has gained widespread usage as nutrient demand rises. The exponential growing in universe fertiliser ingestion experienced a brief downswing in the early 1990 ‘s due to the prostration of fertiliser ingestion in the states of cardinal Europe and the Former Soviet Union, following structural alterations and economic jobs. However station that brief downswing, growing in fertiliser ingestion is once more on the rise and rapid growing is expected to go on in the hereafter. Harmonizing to IFA estimations, the universe fertiliser ingestion is expected to make 199.2mntpa in 2030 from 174.7mntpa in 2015. Figure 3: World Fertilizer Consumption Measure towards Sustainability It is clear that CO2 is the chief constituent that is present in surplus more than other pollutants and fouling the environment. To maintain the environment clean such techniques must be employed that non merely capture the CO2 and other gases and besides utilize them to bring forth a valuable merchandise from these flue gases. This thing will assist in economic system and maintain the environment clean and finally capturing and transition of CO2 from flue gases into a valuable fertiliser ( NH4HCO3 ) is so the first measure towards sustainability. Work The Aqueous ammonium hydroxide is used as a dissolver to capture the fluke gases breathing from the brick kiln which non merely captures CO2, but besides SO2 and NOx. The ammonia solution after soaking up was found to incorporate ammonium hydrogen carbonate [ NH4HCO3 ] , ammonium sulphate [ ( NH4 ) 2SO4 ] , and ammonium nitrate [ NH4NO3 ] , which comprise a compound fertiliser Figure 4: the fluke gases CO2, SO2 and NOx from the stack of brick kiln are breathing. The reaction of aqueous ammonium hydroxide with CO2 non merely captures CO2 but besides give a by-product ; ammonium hydrogen carbonate ( NH4HCO3 ) used a fertiliser Absorption ability of Aqueous Ammonia Vs MEA MEA Process Amine soaking up engineering The soaking up engineering which uses amine solution ( MEA ) is being used in natural gas industry for 60 old ages and is considered as a mature engineering. Natural gas industry utilizes MEA to absorb CO2 from natural gas. The remotion of CO2 from burning fluke gas can be done by a figure of commercial MEA soaking up processes. In an absorbent, the MEA solution is allowed to hold a contact with fluke gas which consequences in the soaking up of CO2. When used in a power works, CO2 is entrapped by the dissolver while the fluke gas is bubbled through the dissolver in a jammed absorber column. Subsequently the captive CO2 is stripped off of the dissolver by counter fluxing steam at 100 to 200 grade Celsius in a regenerator unit. CO2 watercourse is concentrated ( up to 99 % ) due to the vaporization of H2O bluess and this watercourse can subsequently be compressed for commercial applications or storage. The procedure is economically hapless as it calls for a big equipment and intensive e nergy input. Recycle rate of CO2 for MEA is 98 % : The basic reaction for this procedure is: C2H4OHNH2+H2O+CO2C2H4OHNH3++HCO3- Disadvantages of MEA procedure MEA procedure bears some defects which are: 1. Loading capacity of CO2 is little 2. Equipments confronts high corrosion rates 3. High absorptive make-up rate is generated by amine debasement chiefly because of SO2, NO2, HCl, HF and O in fluke gas 4. Energy ingestion is really high particularly during high temperature absorbent regeneration When the CO2 is entrapped from coal or crude oil derived burning fluke gas, hints of sulphur dioxide should besides be removed to avoid debasement of MEA by SO2 and O meanwhile irreversible debasement merchandises are constituted. The cost of MEA procedure is high on history of debasement even if all of the SO2 is removed from the fluke gas by using a desulphurization unit. Oxides of N should besides be dispatched organize the fluke gas to maintain up the emanation bounds. Figure 5: Degradation MEA by CO2 and O2 The cost of MEA make-up is high because of debasement, even after most of the SO2 is removed from the fluke gas in an upstream fluke gas desulphurization unit. NOx must besides be finally removed from the fluke gas before it is discharged into the air in order to run into present and future gaseous emanation bounds. Advantages of Aqueous Ammonia over MEA Replacement of widely used MEA procedure by individual Aqua Ammonia procedure can ensue in the gaining control of all three major acid gases along with HCl and HF which might be in the fluke gas. Since emanations of SO2 and NOx must maintain up certain emanation bounds, a individual procedure is more than plenty to cut down the capital cost by capturing all the acid gases and besides simplify the complexness of emanation control system. Presently there is no emanation bound on CO2 but clip is non far off when it will besides hold a restricted emanation bound. Sulpher dioxide and O in flue gases can bring on equipment corrosion ; the Aqua Ammonia Process can acquire over this job by cut downing absorptive make-up rate. Another advantage of the Aqua Ammonia procedure over the MEA procedure is that the energy demand for absorptive regeneration is predicted to be really low. Beforehand it was approximated that thermic energy ingestion for CO2 regeneration utilizing the Aqua Ammonia Proce ss could be at least 75 % less than the MEA procedure. Many other economical grounds are besides at that place to back up the ammonium hydroxide procedure The profitable by-products, ammonium hydrogen carbonate ( NH4HCO3 ) ammonium sulphate ( ( NH4 ) 2SO4 ) and ammonium nitrate ( NH4NO3 ) are produced, used as a fertiliser Advantage of production of NH4HCO3 China had been preferring ammonium carbonate as a N fertiliser for about 30 old ages. It is already elaborated that when ammonium carbonate is used as a nitrogen fertiliser deep in the dirt its action of work is merely similar urea and ammonium sulfate. As we know that carbonates react with alkalic Earth minerals ( Ca, Mg ) ensuing in the formation of carbonated minerals. Excessive usage of land H2O may do high degrees of alkaline minerals in dirts as in the western United States ; the hydrogen carbonate from ammonium carbonate non merely neutralizes alkalic species but besides deoxidizes salt into stable compounds like H2O and Ca carbonate. HCO3-+Ca2++OH-H2O+CaCO3v Solid merchandises like CaCO3 are a absolutely stable signifier of cloistered CO2 ( Fig. ) . Furthermore, dirt had a capableness to move as a engagement stuff which held back NH4+ but allow HCO3- dribble down with rainfalls or irrigation to land H2O which was already enriched with alkalic minerals Ca2+ . Consequently carbonates reacted with alkalic minerals in land H2O ensuing in the deposition of carbonated minerals in the undersoil Earth bed ( fig. 5A ) . Dirt atoms are negatively charged therefore it attracts positively charged ions but repel negative ions due to its higher affinity for positively charged species ( NH4+ ) as compared to negatively charged species ( HCO3- ) . Figure 6: There upon when ammonium nitrate is used as a fertiliser, NO3- over flows with H2O which non merely consequences in the want of the fertiliser but besides taint of land H2O. Carbonates are non as unsafe species as nitrates because those do non do wellness jobs therefore NH4HCO3 and ( NH2 ) 2CO are preferred fertilisers. Groundwater motion takes carbonates to the Earth subsurface every bit deep as 500 to 1000 m where they deposits as carbonated minerals Figure 7: Loss of fertiliser and taint of land H2O by utilizing NH4NO3 It is obvious that use of NH4NO3 as fertiliser contaminates the land H2O and NO3- is easy run off where as when NH4HCO3 is used as a fertiliser could cut down the job of NO3- overflow and does non pollute the land H2O. Methodology Aqueous Ammonia Procedure It has been proposed that the widely utilised MEA procedure is replaced with aqueous ammonium hydroxide procedure to capture all three major acid gases ( SO2, NOx, CO2 ) plus HCl and HF, which may co-exist in the fluke gas. Since SO2 and NOx emanations must stay by with certain emanation bounds, a individual procedure to capture all acidic gases is expected to cut down the sum cost and complexness of emanation control systems. Unlike the MEA procedure, the Aqua Ammonia Process ( AAP ) is non expected to hold absorptive debasement jobs that are caused by sulfur dioxide and O in fluke gas nor is it expected to do equipment corrosion. The application of ammonium hydroxide for coincident decrease of SO2, NOx and quicksilver has besides been reported [ 31 ] . Different theoretical accounts and methods have been proposed and tested. In our theoretical account, we have chosen Aqueous ammonium hydroxide as the dissolver. The theoretical account was developed on HYSYS 3.2. General NRTL was selected as the fluid bundle. This unstable bundle is rather various and it non merely accommodates the belongingss of our system constituents but besides the aqueous and assorted solvent systems. The flow-sheet of our theoretical account is shown in Fig. 3 Flue gas enters the absorber from the underside to the top through the absorber where interacts in counter-clock manner with aqueous ammonium hydroxide dissolver ( NH3+H2O ) Table 3: Flue gas composing from brick kiln Sr. Number Component Mole Percentage 1 N2 71 2 Carbon dioxide 6.06 3 Carbon monoxide 3.94 4 NO2 8.89 5 Water 3.11 6 H2 2.12 7 SO2 4.88 Procedure Chemistry The procedure of soaking up of CO2 by aqueous ammonium hydroxide involves a complex chemical gas-liquid reaction [ 1 ] , whose general chemical reaction look follows: NH3+H2O+CO2NH4HCO3 ( 1 ) In fact, there are a series of in-between reaction procedures incorporated: NH3+CO2NH2COONH4 ( 2 ) NH2COONH4 hydrolyzes into NH4HCO3: NH2COONH4+H2ONH4HCO3+NH3 ( 3 ) Besides, ammonium hydroxides can respond with H2O to make NH4OH: NH3+H2ONH4OH ( 4 ) NH4HCO3 produced by hydrolytic reaction will respond with NH4OH to make ( NH4 ) 2CO3: NH4HCO3+NH4OH ( NH4 ) 2CO3 ( 5 ) ( NH4 ) 2CO3 absorbs CO2 and creates NH4HCO3 ( NH4 ) 2CO3+H2O+CO22NH4HCO3 ( 6 ) Spraying aqueous ammonium hydroxide into fluke gas non merely captures CO2 but besides absorbs hints of SOx and NOx from the fluke gas in conformity with the undermentioned chemical equations: NOx+SOx+H2OHNO3+H2SO4 ( 7 ) HNO3+H2SO4+NH3NH4NO3+ ( NH4 ) 2SO4 ( 8 ) The merchandise formed ammonium hydrogen carbonate ( NH4HCO3 ) has been used as a N fertiliser in China for over 30 old ages. It has been good demonstrated that when NH4HCO3 is placed into deep dirt, its nitrogen fertilisation consequence on harvests is similar to that of other N fertilisers, such as ( NH4 ) 2SO4 and urea. The intent of this work is to relieve the emanation of CO2 from the selected brick kiln, as this gas is among the major perpetrators doing green-house consequence which has finally resulted in drastic and black conditions alterations and temperature-rise to alarming degrees across the Earth. Each twelvemonth the add-on of Carbon dioxide entirely from the brick industry of Pakistan is 35072.65. Gas soaking up has so far been the most utile and advantageous technique which has been covered good in the subdivision station C techniques. Experimental The CO2 soaking up rate surveies were performed in an absorber in dynamic simulation environment on hysys 3.2. shown in Figure 3. The temperature of gases breathing from top of the brick kilns is in the scope of 120 to 150 A ; deg ; C. The composing of the flue gasses were found utilizing industrial burning and emanation analyser ( E8500, USA ) which is shown in Table 2. Aqueous Ammonia solution is passed through a ice chest in order to diminish the temperature of aqueous ammonium hydroxide temperature, as it gives best consequence at low temperature, introduced from top of the column through valve. The fluke gas is introduced through from the underside of an absorber through a pump that increases its flow rate. In absorber counter flow soaking up takes topographic point and as a consequence, most of the CO2, SOx and NOx are absorbed and a by-product, NH4HCO3, is produced, which is widely used as fertiliser. Figure 8: Procedure flow sheet Absorber Design In our Hysys theoretical account we selected an absorber for the soaking up of flue gases. We used different temperature force per unit area conditions for absorber in order to the happen the best soaking up efficiency and cipher the no. of phases. We found that after nine plates the soaking up efficiency is decreased as shown in graph, and maximal soaking up is achieved utilizing aqueous ammonium hydroxide in an absorber of nine home bases. Figure 9: No of phases Vs mole fraction of CO2 absorbed In our HYSYS theoretical account, we varied different parametric quantities ( i.e. Temperature, Pressure, Flow-rate, Aqueous Ammonia concentration etc. ) and examined the resulting per centum of CO2 absorbed. Consequences and Discussion The rate of soaking up is affected by variables such as temperature, force per unit area, flow-rate, solvent per centum etc. all these variables were manipulated to analyze their consequence on soaking up with the aid of ensuing tabular arraies and tendencies. The consequences of all these parametric alterations are discussed one by one. Consequence of Flow rate on CO2 Absorption: The consequences obtained by simulation of our HYSYS theoretical account show understanding with the standard findings that there is addition in soaking up with that of addition in flow rate. In our HYSYS theoretical account, we used different flow-rates and it has been found that soaking up efficiency is increased with addition of NH3/CO2 molar ratio as shown in Fig. At about a NH3/CO2 molar ratio of approximately 1.5, the highest CO2 soaking up efficiency was measured at approximately 97 % and 100 % for instance of NOx and SOx. In our simulation theoretical account at 230kgmole/hr the maximal soaking up of 97 % of CO2 is observed. At high flow rate i.e. after 230 kilogram mol/hr the consequence of flow rate on soaking up does non demo the same increasing tendency. Model with different fluctuation of temperature was simulated but here the coincident consequence of flow rate between 20 A ; deg ; C to 30 A ; deg ; C on soaking up of CO2 have been shown Figure 10: Molar ratio of NH3/CO2 Vs CO2 Absorbed % Figure 11: Consequence of flow rate of Aq.NH3 on soaking up of CO2 Consequence of Temperature on CO2 Absorption: It is a good known fact that temperature is reciprocally related to the rate of soaking up, our simulation theoretical account besides gives the correspondent consequences. The system temperature was varied from 15 A ; deg ; C to 40 A ; deg ; C with different solvent per centum ( 10.5 % , 14 % and 20 % ) and there was a grade lessening in soaking up rate with the increasing temperature and addition in soaking up with lessening in temperature. The ensuing graph is shown. Figure 10: Consequence of Temperature on CO2 soaking up Consequence of NH3 concentration in solution on soaking up rate The effects of ammonia concentration on CO2 soaking up rate are shown in graph. As the CO2 soaking up reaction progresses, the rates are higher for the solutions with higher ammonium hydroxide concentrations. As expected, CO2 took longer to divide through the solutions holding higher ammonia concentration. For overall absorptive of CO2, the information forms indicate out that it is more advantageous to utilize a higher concentration ammonia solution as CO2 absorbent. The decisions are the same at all three reaction temperatures. By utilizing 20 % AA at 15 A ; deg ; C 96 % maximal soaking up is observed. Therefore 20 % AA solution was selected as the optimal solution. Decision In this work, a theoretical account has been developed and simulated, which aims at the control of CO2 gas which is continuously come ining to the environment from the brick industry in Pakistan and bring forth a fertiliser from the flue gases. It is for the first clip that the brick industry in Pakistan has been analyzed with this position that by spraying aqueous ammonium hydroxide into existent fluke gas produced by a brick kiln can non merely gaining control CO2 but besides absorb SO2 and NOx from the fluke gas and specially gives a compound fertiliser as a by-product. Presently, there is merely one known commercial procedure that uses ammonium hydroxide to at the same time take SO2 and NOx from fluke gas within one reactor and bring forth assorted ammonium sulfate and nitrate fertiliser The soaking up efficiency of CO2, SO2, and NOx in existent fluke gas from a coal-burning installation varies depending on the reaction conditions. The soaking up efficiency of CO2 and SO2 was found to increase with an addition in the concentration of aqueous ammonium hydroxide. Over the NH3/CO2 molar ratio of 1 to 1.5 that was tested, and maximum the CO2 gaining control efficiency was measured at 1.5 is 97 % . The aqueous ammonium hydroxide soaking up solution was found to incorporate a assorted crystalline of ammonium hydrogen carbonate [ NH4HCO3 ] , ammonium sulphate [ ( NH4 ) 2SO4 ] , and ammonium nitrate [ NH4NO3theiˆ ] chief constituents of a compound fertiliser. The captive CO2 in the aqueous ammonium hydroxide solution is in the signifier of HCO3 – and CO3 -2. For a certain molar ratio of NH3/CO2, there is a balanced concentration of HCO3 – and CO3 -2 in the assorted ammonia solution. By spraying the assorted ammonia solution into flue gas incorporating CO2, higher NH4HCO3 content ( higher HCO3 – concentration ) in assorted solution can be obtained. 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Roles of Deregulation on Banking Sector free essay sample

What roles have deregulation, innovation, and globalization played in changing the character of bank management in recent decades? Has the overall outcome of the changes been greater stability in the banking sector? Discuss the respective roles of asset and liability management in modern banking. Deregulation, innovation and globalisation has changed the way banks run from asset management to liability management, as well as the change from ‘mono’ to ‘multi-tasking’ and the increased competition in the sector as well as risk. The banking system has evolved drastically from the traditional mono-tasking institution to what it is now. This change in roles of asset and liability management could be one of the main reasons behind the global financial crisis of which the aftermath effects are still being felt. In this essay I will analyse these three trends in turn and so to explain the reasons for the change to liability management. Traditionally, the role of the banks are simple (post war period 1945-60s) there were strict credit controls (or credit rationing) by the state (there were large public sector war debt) to keep repayments obligations on this debt low. The low interest should also be of aid in sustaining a high demand for Gilts (UK government bonds), allowing no competition on the liabilities side of the bank’s balance sheet. The Liabilities side of the bank’s balance sheet is mainly composed of customer deposits (shows passive banking). They take deposits in, and loans out as the main source of income; this is referred to as ‘mono-tasking’. It should be noted that in more theoretical consensus that regulation in banking has tended to be increasingly destabilizing as the economy has become more dynamic. The process of deregulation changed all this; deregulation came in two forms: first was the removal of self-regulatory restrictions, those were the regulations established in the financial sector to keep away substandard service providers; second was the removal of government restrictions which came in three phases: ) The ending of the traditional/mono-tasking structure of the sector, which is a decisive blow to the traditional framework. On the asset side, we have the lifting of quantitative controls on bank’s assets (deregulating the use of funds); and on the liabilities side they lifted ceilings on interest rates on deposits (deregulating sources of funds) as to promote more competition. The UK began deregulating much earlier than the US; this is because the US is more tightly regulated than Europe (due to the large amounts of bankruptcy and anti-monopolistic view). The US lifted its â€Å"regulation Q† act in 1980 (which limited interest rate payable on deposits) but by that time they deregulated many banks moved to Europe where it has been deregulated for a long time. The UK Heath government (1970s) lifted credit restrictions and enabling banks to expand liabilities competitively. In the 1970s the UK was increasingly allowed to use variable rate lending (e. g. LIBOR) instead of sticking to with an unprofitable loan rate when interest rates were volatile; this endowment gave banks higher profit margins. Later on in 1980s the Thatcher government ended all credit and FX exchange controls. This promoted the change from asset management to liability management, variable rate lending meant stock of loans could be determined by demand, and effective those who want a loan gets a loan. This was explained by the Net interest margins (NIM=interest revenue on assets-interest revenue on liabilitiesinterest earning assets). This differential actually improves the bank’s profitability. Banks therefore actively create liabilities (borrow from other banks) in ‘money markets’ and thus switch to ‘liability management’ trying to maximise sources of funds. The asset management of the past where loans was seen as a ‘person to person’ management no longer existed, as banks greatly expanded their balance sheet they reduced their capital to asset ratios (high gearing) and mortgages are bundled and not monitored, consequently the risk exposures of banks began to increase (complexity of bundling was a factor which led to the current crisis). ) The second phase sees the ending of the sharp distinction between banks and NBFIs (non-banking financial institutions). In the 1980s, banks were given the right to compete in the mortgage market and building societies allowed to compete in the market for consumer credit; i. e. both allowed in each other’s markets. Whereas in US, banks were not allowed to compete in the field of investment banking and insurance until 1999. 3) The third phase allowed increased competition within the financial sector and from outside it. NBFIS and other new kinds of financial institutions attached to other financial operations provided new kinds of services such as online banking (within the financial sector). Firms from outside the financial sector also entered the financial services market including Tesco, Marks and Spencer (UK), and GM and GE in the US (General electric’s financial arm makes 1/3 of its profits! ). The three phases of deregulation is the main driving force for banks and NBFIs to compete aggressively and take on excessive risk (through actively searching out liabilities) to gain higher profit margins. By expanding their balance sheet through liabilities, they increase exposure to credit risk and become highly sensitive to the state of the economy i. e. more defaults during downturns of the economy. Apart from deregulation, financial innovation also played a role in the shift to liability management. Since the 1970s, there has been great instability in the financial environment; there were unpredictable swings in interest rates, exchange rates and inflation; there’s increased demand for NEW financial instruments to hedge against this risk. This lead to the development of all sorts of exotic instruments such as currency options/options/exchange contracts, interest rate swaps and credit default swaps. It is no longer adequate for banks to look at averages over time, investment banks now trade at massive quantities (high-frequency trading) to profit from the narrowest margins. The development of ever more complex instruments is also the solution for the ever increasing sophistication of regulation, as to find loopholes. US banks started to branch out to off shore operations in order to exploit the loosely regulated markets. This is one of the effects which is interconnected to globalisation (discussed later on) Financial innovation also includes technological developments which includes the computerisation of banking, telecommunications and customer’s files. The introduction of electronic payments (credit cards) and ATMs also saw unit transaction costs fall. More importantly, there is a growth in automated trading services, allowing banks to process high volume trading comparing to traditional banking. Lastly we have the factor of Globalisation in the shift to liability management. It follows on the things discussed earlier in the essay; the UK started deregulating far earlier than the US and this became a pull factor; so this is great motivation for the US firms to expand into the European market (funding is restricted by regulation Q which as a push factor), a more profitable and a larger Eurodollar market. This in general shows globalisation in the financial system and the growth of MNCs in general. Securitisation has also increased pace of globalisation of banking. This refers to pooling contractual debt (mortgages/car loans) and selling these in the form of bonds or Asset backed securities. Eventually this lead to the fragility of the bank’s balance sheet; if much of the bank’s assets is no longer ‘mediated’ why should you trust another bank? This lead to the financial crisis we have today, where the fall in house prices in the US lead to the fall in securities (the Asset backed securities) damaging financial institutions globally and created insolvency issues. The collapse of big financial institutions eventually lead to the biggest bailout ever in US history; deregulation, financial innovation and globalisation all played a part in this crisis. Based upon the discussion of the three common trends in the banking sector that led to a shift from asset management to liability management above, I will now focus on how these contributed to the expansion of bank’s balance sheets. Interlinking deregulation, innovation and globalization, we see banks fighting harder to compete amongst one another and with NBFIs as well. As more and more major conglomerates start offering financial intermediation services, it is no wonder banks have been driven to expand their balance sheets to remain competitive. Where this was previously unattainable due to strict regulations in the banking industry, the deregulation that has taken place now creates a great incentive for banks to take on more risks in order to expand their balance sheets. Furthermore, the absolution of the Glenn Seagal Act in the UK has led to a Banks finance their expansion by borrowing from the inter-bank loan markets, hence leading to the huge increase in financial sector debt over the last 3 decades. This has become a cause of worry, as increased risk taking and declining liquidity of banks have led to the financial crises of 2008 that has persisted until today, as the European economy becomes increasingly volatile. Due to increased competition created by the deregulation process, banks have now become more aggressive in trying to win market share by expanding their balance sheets and providing loans or mortgages at high risks. The decreasing number of credit-worthy borrowers has lefts banks with no choice but to lower their underwriting standards and issue mortgages to high-risk individuals, resulting in a leap in subprime lending that led to the global financial crisis of 2008. Essentially, investment banks and hedge funds used financial innovation to enable large wagers to be made, far beyond the actual value of the underlying mortgage loans, using derivatives called credit default swaps, CDO and synthetic CDO. As long as derivative buyers could be matched with sellers, the theoretical amount that could be wagered was infinite. Conclusively, the transition from banks focusing on asset management to liability management today, coupled with the various effects of globalization, financial innovation and globalization has led to banks expanding their balance sheets with high risk mortgages and various other risky ventures, resulting in a massive surge of debt held by the financial sector. As deregulation decreased interest rates in the US and people demanded more loans, banks started providing loans to credit-unworthy individuals, resulting in a spike in bad debts and eventually bringing about the burst of the housing bubble in 2006/2007 which, when coupled with the fact that banks were borrowing from one another to finance risky ventures whilst maintaining a very minimal liquidity requirement has led to a vulnerability of the banking system that resulted in the global financial crisis in 2008. Economists have argued that the trend of deregulation has not kept up with the pace of financial innovation that now allowed banks to onduct various unmonitored activities that could lead to an increased vulnerability of the banking system. To prevent a future crisis, the US authorities have to re-evaluate their deregulation trends (introduction of BASEL III) and ensure that sufficient changes are made to ensure that they keep up with the pace of financial innovation. Briefly discuss how the concepts of the equity multiplier and the convexity of pay-off to holders of equity may be relevant to some current debates regarding the rewards structure in the financial sector The reward structure in the financial sector has been affected in recent years by the changing banking/financial sector especially the excessive risks that the banks are taking for more profit. In this essay I will explore the concepts of the equity multiplier and the convexity of payoffs and affects the reward structure of the financial sector. The high risk aspect of the banking sector could be described by the extremely high gearing banks engage in lending: typically over 95% of funds sourced from debt with less than 5% from equity; if we compare those figures with non-financial institutions with 70% equity funded. The asset management side is also full of risk, how do we screen for loan borrowers? If we increase r, then we get a large mix of high risk borrowers. Borrowers also have more information (private hidden actions/intentions) than the lenders, so there will be asymmetric information. Adverse selection refers to problem where those most likely to be a credit risk are most eager to be selected for a loan; Moral hazard describes the problem where after a loan is approved, the borrower has the incentive to engage in more risky activities which in turn increases the risk of default. This can be solved by â€Å"Information-producing†, that is filling forms that filters people with bad credit scores; or they can build long-term customer relationship that could be mutually beneficial, such that banks knows about the customer and customer knows that the bank knows about their situation. This is known as the â€Å"know your customer† (KYC) procedure within financial institutions, which is carried out to allow better assessment of level of risk taken. There are four main motives for banks to take on excessive risk: First, it is the pressure on the bank’s profits. Banks used to be mainly asset management based, however since the phases of deregulation and innovation and the introduction of NBFIs into the competition drove down profits of the banks. Banks expanded the liabilities side of the balance sheets, and hedging management instruments replaced asset management, so in effective customers’ deposits form a quite small proportion of the liabilities. Assets were transformed from the short-term funds (deposits) to long term, less liquid, high yielding assets. Risks involved changed from low to how. All of these are aimed to increase the yield and to increase the returns on assets. Second, it is on the capital adequacy management and the equity management. There is a trade-off between safety and return on equity (low risk/high risk). The return on equity (ROE) is defined as the Net profits/Equity Capital. If the bank wants to increase their ROE, they have the incentive to reduce equity capital. Recall that Equity Multiplier = Assets/Equity. The increase in ROE holding net profits constant will increase equity multiplier. We make an assumption that retained earnings are 0, which is the entire bank capital is equity capital. Then: A low capital bank with E:A ratio of 4% will have an Equity multiplier (A/E) = (100/4) = 25 A high capital bank with E:A ratio of 10% will have an Equity multiplier of (100/10) = 10 This means, that as we increase the equity multiplier, we also decrease the equity asset ratio, which in turn increases risk of insolvency. A higher equity multiplier implies higher financial leverage, and this will mean the financial instate has to rely more on debts to finance its assets. The third motive involves the analysis of the convexity of returns to holders of equity ? = min (L, Y) is the payout to debt holders. The function is concave: line between any two points on the curve lies beneath it. ? = max (0, Y- L) is the payoff to shareholders. The function is convex: line between any two points on the curve lies above it. The idea is that risk transfers value from debt holders to equity holders and the bigger the spread, the bigger the transfer of value. This model of convexity represents the principle-agent problem, when the manager takes on excessive risk and could be beneficial to the shareholders, but due to limit liability, shareholder bares little to no risk. The last motive is the reward structure in the financial sector. Managers typically take a performance bonus (e. g. 20%) of excess return on funds. This creates a rather large problem, managers can take on a huge ‘tail risk’ (or a huge bet) that is hidden from others, and also managers receives his reward/bonus long before the fund gets hit. This is especially damaging not to one self but also the institution. For example the rogue trader at Barings lost $1. 3billion speculating that brought down the bank that was founded over 2 centuries ago. Another rouge trader at Societe Generale lost 4. 9billion Euros, severely weakening the French bank; he claimed that his superiors knew of his trading activities and it was common practice to take huge gambles for large profits, this is especially worrying. Conclusively, all of the factors discussed above have driven the financial sector to take on larger risks that has rendered the banking system vulnerable to shocks and prone to insolvency, which is exactly what happened in the 2008 global financial crisis. Steps that can be taken to improve upon this include introducing a new rewards structure in the financial sector that ties management’s gains to the firm’s long-run performance to minimize risk-taking. Furthermore, new regulations requiring banks to hold a minimum amount of equity or any other â€Å"cushion† (higher Capital adequacy ratio) that will reduce the vulnerability of banks becoming insolvent can be implemented. All in all, the financial sector requires regulations that can minimize the trade-off between gaining revenue and maintaining a â€Å"safe† position in the economy. Although many such actions have been taken in the US after the 2008 crisis, it is still not enough to eliminate the high debts that have plagued the country for the past few years.